The Natural Origins: Unveiling the Colorful Journey of Your Clothing

Madder, cochineal, and Mauveine - these terms may sound unfamiliar, but they represent dyes derived from a plant, an insect, and a chemical, respectively. These dyes have significantly influenced our world.

While indigo remains widely recognized as a dye - a plant that gave color to King Tutankhamun's burial shrouds and continues to give your denim a blue hue - it is important not to overlook the numerous other dyestuffs that have provoked murder and deceit, fueled great wealth and loss, and transformed clothing into a symbol of status for countless centuries.

In her new book, Lauren MacDonald, author and textile designer, skillfully intertwines the narratives and scientific aspects of color throughout history, ranging from ancient times when natural dyes were prevalent to the present-day era of synthetic production.

The results of dyeing experiments with Mauvein on silk by F. E. Meyer, 1925.

Flavia Zumbrunn/Material Archiv/Courtesy Atelier Editions

"It has been at least 26,000 years since humans began the practice of dyeing," the author asserts. "Imagine your great grandparents tending to a bubbling vat of dye while woolly mammoths and saber-toothed cats freely roamed the earth." In fact, in 2009, scientists made a significant discovery in a cave located in the Caucasus mountains of the former Soviet republic of Georgia. They found perfectly preserved dyed flax fibers, estimated to be around 34,000 years old.

Get madder

The earliest evidence of dye made from madder, a herbaceous plant known for its lemon-red flowers, was discovered on a mummy in the distant Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China. This region is believed to be one of the last areas inhabited by early humans. Dated back to approximately 300CE, the mummy, known as Yingpan Man, was found dressed in a scarlet wool kaftan lined with red silk dyed using madder. The style of this clothing suggests influences from Greek, Persian, and Chinese cultures, providing evidence of the extensive trade routes that existed during that time.

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Dating back 4,000 years, madder has been a common source of red dye. Although it is not the most vibrant red (that distinction belongs to dyes derived from insects such as cochineal and kermes), European textile companies still sent spies to Turkey starting from the 15th century. Their objective was to uncover the secrets of achieving a durable and vibrant madder red. Simultaneously, in the 13th-century Italian city-state of Lucca, dyers sought to protect their livelihoods through strict laws. Utilizing an "inferior" red dye derived from roots like madder instead of crushed bugs like kermes could result in severe consequences, including financial loss or the loss of a hand.

The Alizarin dye process at the Bayer Leverkusen plant in 1961.

Bayer Archives Leverkusen/Courtesy Atelier Editions

The coloring process using madder, like many dyes, is extensive, unpleasant, and hazardous, making it unsuitable for those with a delicate constitution (or sense of smell). According to a 1871 edition of "Scientific American" magazine, there are a total of 11 steps involved in dyeing wool with madder. MacDonald explains that it entails soaking the yarn in a "mild solution of soda lye, followed by rinsing it in a river. Subsequently, sheep dung is immersed in a soda solution, combined with olive oil, strained, and then evenly distributed through the yarn" to eliminate any clumps. "The larger the combination of sheep dung and olive oil, the greater the likelihood of the mixture igniting."

Sea change

Not all plant dyes are natural. Throughout history, various insects and invertebrates have been used to create popular colors. Positioned at the pinnacle of the red spectrum is cochineal, an intense crimson hue that MacDonald deems as the most prestigious natural red dye. This dye is derived from the parasitic insect, also known as cochineal. The use of cochineal dates back to between 300 BCE and 200 BCE. Approximately 70,000 dried insects, each about the size of a grain of rice, are required to produce a pound of dye powder. This amount of dye powder is sufficient to vividly transform 13 wool sweaters into a bright cardinal red shade.

A young Norwegian woman wearing a folk dress poses in a photographic studio in 1901. Traditional Norwegian embroidery might used wool dyed from madder.

Purple, historically associated with nobility and wealth, has been obtained from sea creatures such as murex snails. Creating this natural dye has proven to be quite challenging. Julius Caesar even proclaimed that he was the only one entitled to wear the most exquisite version of this color. A notable incident occurred when the Roman Emperor Caligula became furious upon witnessing Ptolemy, the king of Mauretania, donning a purple cloak during a visit. According to Roman historian Suetonis, this ultimately led to Ptolemy's demise.

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Colorful future

At the dawn of the modern dyeing boom, purple made its presence felt. During the school Easter holidays in 1865, a young English teenager by the name of William Henry Perkin stumbled upon a synthetic dye in his home laboratory. Unintentionally, he had discovered Mauveine, the first mass-produced synthetic dye, which exhibited an "eye-wateringly vibrant purple" hue that quickly became a fashion sensation. By the time Perkins reached the age of 21, he had amassed a substantial fortune, only to lose it within a decade when mauve fell out of favor among the fashionable elite. Despite his efforts, Perkins was unable to replicate his prior success.

Discolorations On Feathers, a sample book by the Bayer Company showing different shades of pink.

In 2017, the discovery of blue dogs in a Mumbai river downstream from a paint and plastics factory caused a sensation, as it drew attention to the environmental consequences of industrial dye disposal. However, the concerns surrounding the effects of dyeing are not a recent development. The book recounts the story of Friedrich Goppelsröder, a Swiss civil servant in the 19th century, who exposed the negligent disposal of arsenic by factory owner Johann Jakob Müller-Pack. This arsenic, used in the production of synthetic magenta, was poisoning the town of Basel through its water supply. Goppelsröder's efforts ultimately resulted in a ban on arsenic dumping.

Dangerous chemical plant processes persist to this day, and overconsumption remains a significant issue. As stated in the Global Fashion Agendas Pulse of the Industry Report, it is predicted that fashion waste will reach a staggering 148 million tons by 2030. Shockingly, the majority of clothing waste is either dumped in landfills or incinerated, with the equivalent of a rubbish truck full of clothes being discarded every second. Astonishingly, only 20% of clothing is currently collected for reuse or recycling.

Prickly pear cactus contains the pigment betalain which creates a pinkish purple hue.

Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History/Courtesy Atelier Editions

Despite the progress being made in innovative practices such as water treatment using mushrooms that absorb contaminants, and genetic engineering that alters the DNA of fabrics to eliminate the need for dye, synthetic dyestuffs continue to dominate the market. According to MacDonald, textiles are a constant presence in our lives, from the comfortable cotton sheets we sleep in to the uniforms we wear every day. The history, present, and future of dyeing are closely intertwined with our lifestyle choices. Ananda Pellerin, the author, served as an editor on The Pursuit of Color, a book published by Atelier Éditions and available now.